Radio, T.V., microwave, visible light, u.v. light, x-rays, -rays are
all electromagnetic radiation and differ only in wavelength. Electromagnetic radiation may have both beneficial and harmful effects: e.g. u.v. light absorbed by the skin can supply needed vitamin D, but excess u.v. radiation accounts for much skin cancer. X-rays and
-rays are more penetrating and so can
affect tissue below the skin.
Besides electromagnetic radiation one has high velocity charged (and neutral) particles. From naturally radioactive materials, the charged particles
are either high speed electrons ('s, beta rays) or alpha particles (
's, the nuclei of helium atoms). Both types are rather easily stopped by a small thickness of matter e.g.
1.8 mm Al stops 1.17 MeV
's from RaE, and
0.06 mm Al stops 5.3 Mev
's from Po. Hence natural radioactivities are normally of little concern unless the parent nucleus has been inhaled or ingested in the body. The biological effects of neutral particles (e.g. neutrons and neutrinos) from naturally radioactive materials are normally negligible.
Federal laws on permissible doses are:
RADIATION SOURCES:
Brick and stone houses often have larger backgrounds. Living in Denver
(elevation 5200 ft.) contributes an additional 0.7 mSv/yr. In the
Kerala region of India and the Espirito Santo region of Brazil, natural
sources give
30 mSv/yr with no obvious abnormality resulting to the
indigenous population so the Federal regulations seem very conservative for
the general population.
Man-made radiation exposure averages .7 mSv/yr and comes almost
exclusively from medical and dental x-rays. A single dental x-ray may
involve 7 mSv to the skin. Exposures from nuclear power generating
stations are nearly zero. In fact, per KWH of electricity generated, the
radioactivity released from coal fired plants is often high compared to
that permitted from nuclear plants since many coals contain appreciable
uranium and/or thorium plus the equilibrium decay products from these
long-lived radioactive nuclei.
For perspective on radiation exposure, Prof. Cameron formerly of the UW Medical Physics Dept. suggests translating doses into a natural unit, the BERT defined as the Background Equivalent Radiation Time. Thus a BERT equal to 1 yr would correspond to 3 mSv (see above discussion on average background dose).
THE RADON PROBLEM:
A radon concentration of 50 Bq/m3 may result in an annual dose equivalent to bronchial epithelium (site of most radiation induced lung cancer) of 2.5 mSv/yr. Perhaps 25% of Wisconsin houses have concentrations > 150 Bq/m3 which is the EPA guideline where action should be taken in a few years since the lung cancer risk may be comparable to smoking 3 to 10 cigarettes/day. (M.S. Blumenthal, Wisconsin Medical Journal, Vol. 87, May 1988, p.17) In fact 2% of U.S. homes have radon concentrations > 300 Bq/m3 and occupants should take action to reduce the concentration since they
may be receiving an effective dose of >
16 mSv/yr. (By contrast the
EPA limit for off-site exposure from nuclear reactors or from nuclear waste
depositories is only .25 mSv/yr!) (Bodansky, Physics and Society 16, No. 4, p. 6, 1987).
If a house has high radon levels, then the radon ingress usually is from air infiltration from soil beneath the house. Natural convection in the house (chimney effect) tends to pull in the radon contaminated air. A solution is to drive pipes through the basement floor and connect them to fans exhausting to the outside air. See A. V. Nero Jr. ``The Indoor Radon Story'', Technology Review Vol.89, No. 1, p. 28, (1986); also A. Nero, ``Earth, Air, Radon and Home'', Physics Today, Vol 42, No. 4, p.32, (1989).
A good general reference on the subject is
``Radon and its Decay Products in Indoor Air'' edited by William Nazaroff and A.V. Nero, Jr., John Wiley & Sons, 1988. Ground water supplies often contain high concentrations of radon from uranium decay in the aquifers. The radon concentration in public ground water supplies averages 5000 Bq/m3, and is much higher in some of the New England states. The health hazard is apparently not from drinking the water, but from the water's contribution to the indoor radon air problem: perhaps
5 Bq/m3. Private wells often have high concentrations. Storage or aeration of the water provides effective control of the hazard.
OTHER ISSUES:
The following is from RADIATION DOSIMETRY by former Prof. John R. Cameron, Department of Medical Physics, UW, Madison:
``Studies on nuclear workers often show that they have less cancer than other member of the population and even of other workers with similar jobs. This is usually explained as the 'healthy worker' effect. That is, for reasons not understood, radiation work attract healthy workers. An alternate explanation which is rarely mentioned is the possibility that a small amount of radiation is good for you. This is referred to as the 'hormesis' effect. Since humans and all of our ancestors evolved in a sea of natural radiation, it is possible that mutations have occurred that produce the hormesis effect. Animal experiments have demonstrated the hormesis effect. Rats exposed to increased radiation have a longer survival than their controls.''